The Great Penance of Mamallapuram

You cannot claim to have visited Tamil Nadu without paying a visit to Mamallapuram. And, if you go to Mamallapuram, you would never be able to miss the Great Penance, an incredible sculptural masterpiece.

Most people call it Arjuna's Penance. Some of them call it Bhagiratha's Penance. And a handful of people call it the Great Penance. Measuring 96 feet by 43 feet, the gigantic panel carved on two monolithic rock boulders has more than 150 sculptures. 

It is said that this open-air rock relief sculptural panel has no parallel in India. In terms of beauty, I agree, it is true. But, when it comes to size, Unakoti rock relief images are larger than this. The hidden beauty of Tripura remains an unexplored destination.

A lot of people have written about the Great Penance in their books, sites and blogs. Even I have covered this site in this blog some 11-12 years ago. So, why do we have this article? Here, I will explore every single sculpture of this gigantic panel. And, I would set aside the opinions and arguments done by the scholars and experts. This article aims to introduce this sculptural marvel to an average traveler or a heritage lover. The purpose is not to list down the names of all scholars who have done the fieldwork or to detail their points of view.

Main Theme

Although the landmark monument of Mamallapuram is known as Arjuna's Penance, Bhagiratha's Penance and the Great Penance, the central theme is certainly not the penance. 

As mentioned already in this article, the images are sculpted on two rock boulders. A central cleft divides the panel into two parts. Around 150 sculptures depicting animals, birds, celestials, and humans are found on both parts of the panel. Most of these figures are shown moving towards the central part, adoring something in the middle. Hence, the main theme of the monument is in the central portion. The central cleft clearly gives an impression of a water body. There is a possibility that the Pallavas might have built a cistern at the top to collect water and release it as needed. The descent of the divine river Ganga appears to be the appropriate theme. 

At the request of King Bhagiratha, the holy river that was flowing only on the celestial world (Swarga) descended to the earth (Bhoomi) and even to the subterranean world (Patala Lok). The descent of the Ganga was such a great event that the living beings of all three worlds, namely the celestials (Devas and other types of celestials), humans and Nagas (serpents), gathered to witness the same.

 It is appropriate to conclude that the event mentioned above, recorded in Hindu Puranas and epics, is depicted as the central theme of the monument. (More details about the penances by Bhagiratha and Arjuna are provided in the latter part of this article.)

Parts of Panel

As the article's objective is to focus on every single sculpture, let me divide the entire panel into five parts: top right, bottom right, center, top left, and bottom left. The sculptures in each region would be dealt with in separate sub-sections.

Top Left Part of Panel

This section details the sculptures that are found on the top left side of the panel. (Please note that it is the true right side of the panel, and it would be his/her left side from the viewer's point of view.)

Animals and Dwarfs

We find a lioness, a wild cat and two dwarfs at the topmost layer from the left. 

The animals are in motion towards the central aperture. The second animal is arguably a tiger.

A dwarf couple is found seated with hoods over their ears, covering their heads. They face towards us. Their posture makes me wonder if the extreme cold weather affected them. 

Let me also label all the sculptures for better identification and future reference.

Sculpture #1 - Lioness

Sculpture #2 - Tiger

Sculpture #3 - Dwarf

Sculpture #4 - Dwarf female

Three Couples

There are three couples found in the middle layer. 

The left and right side couples are almost similar with minor differences in their sizes and minute differences in their postures. Both the couples are flying towards the central cleft. The males wear kirita makuta (tall conical crowns), kundalas (earrings) and yagnopavita (sacred thread). Their right arms rest on their waists and their left arms are raised up in a gesture of amazement (known as Vismaya mudra). The females who follow the males also wear crowns. The female on the right side has her right arm resting on her waist. Both the females have their left arms in a similar posture, which appears to me as kataka hasta. These couples represent Gandharvas or Vidhyadharas. 

(Gandharvas and Vidhyadharas are different clans of celestials. It is impossible to confidently identify these icons as Gandharvas or Vidhyadharas.)

(The consorts of Gandharvas are not Apsaras, as it is commonly believed, and hence these female celestials cannot be identified as Apsaras. The consort of a Gandharva is called Gandharvi.)

In the center, the Kinnara couple is found. They have the legs and wings of birds. The male holds Veena and the female holds cymbals (jalras). If we carefully notice, they are not seen flying but are found in the standing posture facing towards the central cleft. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #5 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #6 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #7 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #8 - Kinnara

Sculpture #9 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #10 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara

Forest

The layer below the above-mentioned sculptures has a leaping lion, two trees and two woodmen. 

The lion is beautifully depicted with its mane surrounding the face and its forelegs raised up for leaping. 

In front of the leaping lion, there is a tree. It is possibly a jackfruit tree. In front of the tree, there is a mustached woodman with his hair tied on top. He wears minimal cloth and holds a stave in his left arm. His right arm rests on his waist.  He is in a standing posture with his left leg placed on a higher rock. 

There is another tree in front of the woodman. It is comparatively shorter than the previously mentioned tree. In front of this tree, there is another woodman. He also sports a mustache and has his hair tied on top. He wears a loincloth and carries items on a sling with his left arm. His right arm rests on his waist. His left leg rests on a highly placed rock.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #11 - Leaping Lion

Sculpture #12 - Jackfruit tree

Sculpture #13 - Woodman holding stave

Sculpture #14 - Tree

Sculpture #15 - Woodman carrying items on a sling

Three Couples and a Forester

The top layer on the middle of the left panel has the images of three couples and a forester.

The first two couples are flying Gandharvas. They are more or less identical with respect to demeanor, dress and ornamentation to the Sculptures numbered #5, #6, #9 and #10. However, there is one significant difference. The males hold a weapon (probably a bow) in their left arms. Would Vidhyadharas hold weapons? I don't think so. However, although Gandharvas are known for their music, they are capable of fighting. Hence, I believe that these two couples represent Gandharvas. 

The sculptures of the third couple are comparatively small in size. They represent the Kinnara couple, similar to what we have already seen. (Refer Sculpture #7 and #8). Here, the male Kinnara holds Veena in his right arm and raises up his left arm in amazement, unlike the other male Kinnara, who holds Veena in both his arms. 

The sculpture of a forester up to his waist is seen above the Kinnara couple. His image is seen only up to his waist. He holds a hatchet in his left arm.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #16 - Gandharva woman

Sculpture #17 - Gandharva holding a weapon

Sculpture #18 - Gandharva woman

Sculpture #19 - Gandharva holding a weapon

Sculpture #20 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #21 - Kinnara with Veena in his right arm

Sculpture #22 - Forester till his waist

Forest

The layer below the sculptures of three couples depicts a forest scene.

As a continuation of trees and woodmen (refer to sculptures #12 through #15), a tall black monkey with the hairy neck is seated in a relaxed position. The deer in front of the monkey turns its neck back to watch the monkey. Above, a monitor lizard is creeping up on an unsuspecting bird.

On the right side, a bearded forester holds a stave in his left arm and carries a jack fruit in his right arm. In front of him, there is another mustached forester, with a hatchet hanging on his waist, carries items on a sling. It is not very clear if it is a sling or a natural rock formation. If it is not a sling, the hunter must be holding some other tool or weapon.

On the further right side, a couple of dwarfs are found. Both of them are seated. If we carefully notice, we would realize that the dwarf on the left side is a female. I could see some of the writers/historians have wrongly identified them as Shiva Ganas.

Below the forest men, there are four animals sculpted. 

A tiger is seen crawling towards an unsuspecting mountain goat. 

A boar is looking behind and upwards. It should be noted that pigs do not look upwards generally. This sculpture is slightly damaged.

The last image is a masterpiece, which hardly anyone notices. Two tiny and cute tiger cubs are sucking milk from their mother. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #23 - Black monkey seated on a tree

Sculpture #24 - Deer

Sculpture #25 - Monitor lizard

Sculpture #26 - Bird

Sculpture #27 - Forester carrying jackfruit

Sculpture #28 - Forester

Sculpture #29 - Female dwarf

Sculpture #30 - Dwarf

Sculpture #31 - Crawling tiger

Sculpture #32 - A mountain goat

Sculpture #33 - Boar

Sculpture #34 - The mother tiger with two cubs

Chandra

On the top layer, to the right side of the sculpture of the forester till his waist, Chandra (the personified form of Moon) is found. He is flying towards the central cleft. His left arm is raised up in a gesture of amazement (Vismaya mudra). A halo behind his head helps us to identify him as Chandra. Otherwise, this icon is similar to the other Gandharva and Vidhyadhara icons.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #35 - Chandra

Shiva 

Here comes the most talked about sculpture of the panel, the beautiful 10 feet high Shiva.  Although this is not the central theme of the panel, it is nevertheless an important theme. Historians and scholars have been debating for a long time in identifying the sculpture of the devotee who stands next to Shiva. Many claim that he is Arjuna and a few claim that he is Bhagiratha. Who were Bhagiratha and Arjuna, and how they were associated with Shiva? Let me explain. Before that, let us go through the iconography of Shiva.

The sculpture of Shiva is one of the most attractive sculptures in this panel. Shiva is in a standing posture. He has four arms. He holds the shaft of Trishula (trident) in his lower right arm. His lower left arm is in Varada mudra (posture of bestowing the boon). His upper left arm holds the axe (called Parasu). It is not clear what he holds in his upper right arm. A few historians believe that he holds the tail of a cobra. But I differ on this. As this portion of the sculpture is eroded, we cannot clearly identify what he holds. The head of a three hooded serpent is found below his lower right arm, whose body is coiled around his body.

Shiva has his matted hair ornamentally coiled to form a tall crown. It is known as jata makuta. He wears an oversized cylindrical earring called Patra Kundala in his left ear and wears Makara Kundala in his right ear. He has yagnopavita (sacred thread) on his body. He wears minimal ornaments on his neck, arms and wrists.

Another vital feature is Shiva has a smaller disk representing a full moon on his head. Generally, the crescent moon is seen on his head, and hence, this representation can be considered unique.

Four Shiva Ganas surround Shiva. Three Ganas are found on his true right side, and one Gana is on his true left side.

The Gana on the left side of Shiva has the lion's face in his belly. He holds some item in his right arm, which is not clear. (I think it is a chamara (also known as chauri), the fly-whisk or hand fan).

Two Ganas stand one after the other on the right side of Shiva. The Gana closer to Shiva holds a chamara in his left arm. The Gana, behind the former Gana, holds some item in his right arm, which could not be identified.

Another Gana is standing on a layer above those two Ganas. He has a chamara in his left arm. I am not sure if anyone has noted or written about this earlier. If we carefully notice this sculpture, we can recognize that he has a monkey face.

Bhagiratha 

We find the sculpture of a devotee to the true left side of Shiva. The devotee balances his whole body by standing erect merely with his left leg. His emaciated body, sunken ribs, withered muscles, long beard, and long hair on his head clearly indicate that he has been performing severe penance for several years. Although Shiva appears in front of him, he seems to have not disturbed and has his head thrown back slightly. His both arms are raised upwards, and all his fingers are interlocked. He wears a loincloth.

The individualized sculpture of the ascetic is a masterpiece, and there is no doubt that this has attracted the attention of many scholars more than the main theme.

Who is this ascetic? Arjuna or Bhagiratha? Let me brief their stories and not indulge much in the argument, as that is not the article's objective.

Arjuna, the third brother among the five Pandavas, performed severe penance towards Shiva to get Pasupata Astra. Shiva, in the form of a hunter, playfully got into a scuffle with Arjuna. Then, he appeared in his original form and fulfilled Arjuna's wish. Many scholars believe that these sculptures depict Arjuna's penance and Shiva presenting Pasupata Astra to the former.

Bhagiratha, the Emperor in the Surya clan, wanted to bring the heavenly river Ganga to Patala Loka to sanctify his dead ancestors. He performed severe penance towards Brahma to bring Ganga. As he realized that the earth could not stand the mighty force of the divine river, he performed penance towards Shiva and requested the latter to receive the torrential river on his head. There are a few scholars who believe that this sculpture represents Bhagiratha.

I, too, consider this sculpture as Bhagiratha and the whole episode as the descent of Ganga. I do not want to get into the details and logical points, as it warrants a separate long article.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #36 - Shiva Gana with the monkey face

Sculpture #37 - Shiva Gana 

Sculpture #38 - Shiva Gana with chamara

Sculpture #39 - Shiva 

Sculpture #40 - Shiva Gana with lion-faced stomach

Sculpture #41 - Bhagiratha

Other Sculptures

There are a few more sculptures on the left side panel.

On the layer below the feet of Shiva, a tortoise and a leaping deer are sculpted.

To the true left side of Bhagiratha's raised-up arms, two geese are found one below the other, facing towards the central cleft.

On the lowermost layer, a Gandharva or Vidhyara couple is found. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #42 - Tortoise

Sculpture #43 - Leaping deer

Sculpture #44 - Goose

Sculpture #45 - Goose

Sculpture #46 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #47 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara

Holistic View of Top Left Panel 

As listed down above, totally there are 47 sculptures on the top left panel. The category-wise break-up is given below.

Total number of celestials - 20

Shiva - 1

Chandra - 1

Gandharva or Vidhyadhara couples - 3

Gandharva couples - 2

Kinnara couples - 2

Shiva Ganas - 4

Total number of humans - 10

Bhagiratha - 1

Dwarf couples - 2

Foresters - 5

Total number of animals - 10

Tigers - 3

Lion - 1

Lioness - 1

Deer - 2

Mountain goat - 1

Monkey - 1

Boar - 1

Total number of birds - 3

Bird - 1

Geese - 2

Total number of reptiles - 2

Tortoise - 1

Lizard - 1

Total number of trees - 2

Trees - 2

The tree where the black monkey is seated, two cubs of a tiger and the serpent coiled on the body of Shiva are not considered as separate sculptures.

As a whole, the top left panel depicts a forest, few celestials flying over, a few animals, birds and reptiles, and notably the boon to Bhagiratha by Shiva. 

Bottom Left Part of Panel

This section details the sculptures that are found on the bottom left side of the panel. (Please note that it is the true right side of the panel, and it would be his/her left side from the viewer's point of view.)

Few Animals

Unfortunately, this part of the panel remains majorly unfinished. A seated antelope, a partially sculpted deer, a lioness below the deer and two tigers (or lions?) in the lowermost layer are the sculptures found here. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #48 - Antelope

Sculpture #49 - Incomplete deer

Sculpture #50 - Lioness

Sculpture #51 - Tiger

Sculpture #52 - Tiger

Vishnu Temple

To the true left side of the animals mentioned above and below Bhagiratha, a temple of Vishnu is sculpted. It is an earlier period temple that has only Garbha griha (sanctum). It has a single vimana, and it possesses all Agamic features (temple building rules) of a typical temple. It enshrines Vishnu in a standing posture. He has four arms and holds conch and discus in his upper arms. 

There are four ascetics seated near the temple. The sculptures of three ascetics have their heads broken. As one ascetic is seated at a higher platform, he can be considered a Guru, and all three ascetics can be considered his disciples. One disciple who is found in front of Guru is seated in Yogic posture. The other two disciples are seated facing towards the direction of Guru.

A lot of attempts were made by various scholars to identify these ascetics. I have my own reasons to refute all of them. According to me, they are a mere representation of an ascetic and his three disciples.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #53 - Vishnu Temple

Sculpture #54 - Ascetic (Guru)

Sculpture #55 - Disciple in Yogic posture

Sculpture #56 - Disciple

Sculpture #57 - Disciple

Bathers and Other Sculptures

A black monkey is found seated on a tree to the true left side of the Vishnu temple. It faces towards the central cleft. 

Below the monkey, a Naga (serpent) couple is found flying and facing towards the central cleft. The male, as well as female, are in complete human forms. The male has a five-headed hood over his head, and the female has a single-headed hood above her headdress. The male has his left arm raised up in amazement.

Below the Naga couple, four people are found bathing in the river. One person is wringing out wet clothes. The second person carries a pot on his shoulder. The third person worships the divine river. The fourth person performs Surya Namaskar by gazing at the Sun through the slits of his interlocked fingers. 

Below the platform where the ascetic Guru is seated, there is a tiger found. Below this sculpture, there are two deer seated, one behind the other. The deer on the front side is an interesting sculpture. The deer is found scratching its face with its paw. The deer on the backside is not entirely sculpted. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #58 - Tiger below the seat of Guru

Sculpture #59 - Incomplete deer

Sculpture #60 - Deer scratching its face

Sculpture #61 - Man performing Surya Namaskar

Sculpture #62 - Man worshiping the divine river

Sculpture #63 - Man holding pot

Sculpture #64 - Man wringing out wet clothes

Sculpture #65 - Monkey seated on a tree

Sculpture #66 - Naga woman

Sculpture #67 - Naga man with a five-headed hood over his head

Holistic View of Bottom Left Panel 

As listed down above, totally there are 20 sculptures on the bottom left panel. The category-wise break-up is given below.

Total number of celestials - 2

Naga couple - 1

Total number of humans - 8

Guru - 1

Disciples - 3

Bathers - 4

Total number of animals - 9

Tigers - 3

Lioness - 1

Deer - 3

Antelope - 1

Monkey - 1

Total number of structures - 1

Temple - 1

As a whole, the bottom left panel depicts a temple with a few ascetics, people bathing in the river and a few animals. Almost three-fourths of this part remains incomplete. 

Middle of Panel

In the cleft at the center of the panel, there are three sculptures. 

Halfway up the cleft, Naga Raja (the serpent king) is found. He has a human form above his waist and a snake's body in the lower half. A seven hooded serpent spreads over his crown. Most probably, this sculpture represents Vasuki.

Below Naga Raja, Naga Queen with a female body as the upper part and snake's body as the lower part is found. A three hooded serpent spreads over her crown. 

Both the Naga Kinga and Queen have their hands in Anjali mudra (hand gesture of salutation or Namaskar).

A serpent in the ordinary form is found below the Naga Queen.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #68 - Naga Raja

Sculpture #69 - Naga Queen

Sculpture #70 - Serpent

Holistic View of the Central Cleft 

As listed down above, totally there are three sculptures in the central cleft. The category-wise break-up is given below.

Total number of celestials - 2

Naga Raja - 1

Naga Queen - 1

Total number of reptiles - 1

Serpent - 1

Top Right Part of Panel

This section details the sculptures that are found on the top right side of the panel. (Please note that it is the true left side of the panel, and it would be his/her right side from the viewer's point of view.)

Surya

On the top layer, to the right side of the central cleft, the sculpture of Surya (the personified form of Sun) is found. He is flying towards the central cleft. His right arm is raised up in a gesture of amazement (Vismaya mudra). A halo behind his head helps us to identify him as Surya. Otherwise, this icon is similar to the other Gandharva and Vidhyadhara icons. The lower part of the sculpture is damaged.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #71 - Surya

Three Couples and Other Sculptures

Right below the feet of Surya, a dwarf couple is seen seated. 

To the true right side of the male dwarf, a celestial person is found. His posture appears as if he is flying over. I am not sure how to identify this sculpture. It is different from the other Gandharva or Vidhyadhara sculptures. Here, the celestial is alone, and his consort is not there. Besides, his ornamentation is different. He has an empty chest and has no ornaments in his arms. However, he too wears a conical crown, and his right arm is raised up in amazement, similar to other male celestials. This person could be a Deva, Gandharva or Vidhyadhara. It is difficult to classify his clan correctly.

Below the celestial person, a couple of Gandharvas/Vidhyadharas and a couple of Kinnaras are seen. The male Kinnara holds Veena in his left arm. Notably, the female does not have cymbals. 

On the top layer above the Kinnara couple, a jungle cock and hen are found. Behind the couple, there is another set of jungle cock and hen sculpted.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #72 - Deva/Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #73 - Dwarf

Sculpture #74 - Dwarf female

Sculpture #75 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #76 - Gandharva or Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #77 - Jungle cock

Sculpture #78 - Hen

Sculpture #79 - Jungle cock

Sculpture #80 - Hen

Multiple Couples and Other Sculptures

On the true left side of Surya, there are a lot of icons. Let me group them into three layers.

In the top layer, the Gandharva/Vidhyadhara couple is seen first. 

Behind them, the Kinnara couple is found. The male holds Veena with both his arms.

Behind the Kinnara couple, there is Gandharava or Vidhyadhara couple. The lower parts of the limbs of both figures are not sculpted. The male figure does not have his right arm raised up in amazement like other similar icons.

Behind the celestial couple, a pair of deer are found. These sculptures are damaged. 

Behind the deer, a couple (Gandharva or Vidhyadhara) are found. Their lower limbs are not sculpted. Interestingly, their heads are turned away from the central cleft. 

A majestic-looking lion is standing on a rock below the celestial couple.

In the middle layer, there are three couples. The first and third couples are Gandharvas or Vidhyadharas. The middle couple is the Kinnara couple.

In the bottom layer, the Kinnara couple is seen first. Then, there is a dwarf couple. Behind them, two couples of Gandharvas or Vidhyadharas are found. The male celestial in the last pair has a different posture. He rests both his arms on his waist, and he faces us and not towards the central cleft.

Below the celestial couple, we can find tiny sculptures of a dwarf couple. It is not very clear if the second sculpture represents a female. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #81 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #82 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #83 - Kinnara

Sculpture #84 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #85 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #86 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #87 - Deer

Sculpture #88 - Deer

Sculpture #89 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #90 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #91 - Lion

Sculpture #92 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #93 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #94 - Kinnara

Sculpture #95 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #96 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #97 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #98 - Kinnara

Sculpture #99 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #100 - Dwarf

Sculpture #101 - Dwarf female

Sculpture #102 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #103 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #104 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara

Sculpture #105 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #106 - Dwarf

Sculpture #107 - Dwarf female

Siddhas and Other Sculptures

Let me describe the sculptures found in the top rightmost corner. These sculptures are also classified into three layers.

In the topmost layer, a partially sculpted lion is found. Behind the lion, there are two mountain goats found, one after the other. The second goat is partially carved and is unnoticeable. Behind the goats, a lion is standing. On a rock located above, a lioness is probably getting ready to jump upon the unsuspecting mountain goat. A deer is standing at faraway from the lion. 

A Gandharva/Vidhyadhara couple, a Kinnara couple, and a lion are found in the middle layer.

The bottom layer has a few unique sculptures compared to the other sculptures in this panel. A couple of bearded men are found flying towards the central cleft. The first person has his right arm raised up in amazement. The second person holds some unidentifiable object in his left arm. Behind this couple, there are two people found flying towards the cleft. The first person sports a beard, and the second person has a clean shaved face and holds a flower in his left arm. We can identify the first three people as Siddhas. The last person could most probably be a Carana.

A lion is standing behind the Carana.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #108 - A partially sculpted lion

Sculpture #109 - A mountain goat

Sculpture #110 - A partially sculpted mountain goat

Sculpture #111 - Lioness

Sculpture #112 - Lion

Sculpture #113 - Deer

Sculpture #114 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara 

Sculpture #115 - Gandharva/Vidhyadhara female

Sculpture #116 - Kinnara

Sculpture #117 - Kinnara female

Sculpture #118 - Lion

Sculpture #119 - Siddha

Sculpture #120 - Siddha

Sculpture #121 - Siddha

Sculpture #122 - Carana

Sculpture #123 - Lion

Holistic View of Top Right Panel 

As listed down above, totally there are 53 sculptures on the top right panel. The category-wise break-up is given below.

Total number of celestials - 32

Surya - 1

Deva/Gandharva/Vidhyadhara - 1

Siddhas - 3

Carana - 1

Gandharva or Vidhyadhara couples - 9

Kinnara couples - 4

Total number of humans - 6

Dwarf couples - 3

Total number of animals - 11

Lions - 5

Lioness - 1

Deer - 3

Mountain goats - 2

Total number of birds - 4

Jungle cock - 2

Hen - 2

Bottom Right Part of Panel

This section details the sculptures that are found on the bottom right side of the panel. (Please note that it is the true left side of the panel, and it would be his/her right side from the viewer's point of view.)

Naga and Monkey Couples

Like the left side panel, a Naga (serpent) couple is found on the right side. The couple is found flying towards the central cleft. The male, as well as female, are in complete human forms. The male has a three-headed hood over his head, and the female has a single-headed hood above her headdress. The male has his hands in Anjali mudra (hand gesture of salutation or Namaskar).

Slightly above the Naga couples, a male and a female monkey are found seated on a tree. They are classic creations. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #124 - Naga

Sculpture #125 - Naga female

Sculpture #126 - Male monkey

Sculpture #127 - Female monkey

A hypocrite Cat

The sculptors were not the morose or serious type of people. The classic sculpture of a hypocrite cat stands as proof of the humorous sense of those sculptors.

The cat standing erect on its two hind legs imitates the ascetic on the other side of the panel. It stands as a testimony to the incredible imagination of the sculptors. Thirteen unsuspecting mice surround the cat. Among them, one mouse is an interesting piece. It holds its forelimbs together and salutes the ascetic cat.

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #128 - The hypocrite cat

Sculpture #129 - The saluting mouse

Sculpture #130 - Mouse

Sculpture #131 - Mouse

Sculpture #132 - Mouse

Sculpture #133 - Mouse

Sculpture #134 - Mouse

Sculpture #135 - Mouse

Sculpture #136 - Mouse

Sculpture #137 - Mouse

Sculpture #138 - Mouse

Sculpture #139 - Mouse

Sculpture #140 - Mouse

Sculpture #141 - Mouse

Elephant Herd

The elephant herd is the most fascinating group of sculptures in the entire panel. The majestic 15 feet high bull elephant and the large cow elephant, and eight cute elephant calves are masterpieces of Pallava sculptors.

One calf is found between the trunk and forelegs of the bull elephant. Three calves are in between the protective legs of the bull elephant. Two calves are under the protection of their mother. The remaining two elegant calves follow their parents and siblings. 

Label of sculptures:

Sculpture #142 - The bull elephant

Sculpture #143 - The cow elephant

Sculpture #144 - Elephant calf between the trunk and legs of the bull elephant

Sculpture #145 - Elephant calf between the legs of the bull elephant

Sculpture #146 - Elephant calf between the legs of the bull elephant

Sculpture #147 - Elephant calf between the legs of the bull elephant

Sculpture #148 - Elephant calf between the legs of the cow elephant

Sculpture #149 - Elephant calf between the legs of the cow elephant

Sculpture #150 - Elephant calf following the cow elephant

Sculpture #151 - Elephant calf following the cow elephant

Holistic View of Bottom Right Panel 

As listed down above, totally there are 28 sculptures on the top right panel. The category-wise break-up is given below.

Total number of celestials - 2

Naga couples - 1

Total number of animals - 26

Elephant couple - 1

Elephant calves - 8

Monkey couple - 1

Cat - 1

Mice - 13

The elephant herd occupies a significant portion of this part of the panel. The standing cat is another interesting and much-talked-about sculpture in this panel. 

Holistic View of the Entire Panel 

There are 151 sculptures in total in the entire panel. On the left side of the panel, there are 67 sculptures. The right side has 81 sculptures, and the remaining three sculptures are on the central cleft. 

The categories, along with the break-up of those sculptures, are listed down here.

Total number of celestials - 58

Shiva - 1

Surya - 1

Chandra - 1

Deva/Gandharva/Vidhyadhara - 1

Gandharva or Vidhyadhara couples - 12

Gandharva couples - 2

Kinnara couples - 6

Shiva Ganas - 4

Naga Raja - 1

Naga Queen - 1

Naga couple - 2

Siddhas - 3

Carana - 1

Total number of humans - 24

Bhagiratha - 1

Guru - 1

Disciples - 3

Bathers - 4

Dwarf couples - 5

Foresters - 5

Total number of animals - 56

Tigers - 6

Lions - 6

Lionesses - 3

Deer - 8

Antelope - 1

Mountain goats - 3

Monkeys - 2

Boar - 1

Elephant couple - 1

Elephant calves - 8

Monkey couple - 1

Cat - 1

Mice - 13

Total number of birds - 7

Bird - 1

Geese - 2

Jungle cock - 2

Hen - 2

Total number of reptiles - 3

Tortoise - 1

Lizard - 1

Serpent - 1

Total number of trees - 2

Trees - 2

Total number of structures - 1

Temple - 1

Let me do a brief analysis now.

The top left part of the panel has 47 sculptures, whereas the top right part has 53 sculptures. So, the right side has more sculptures than the left side panel.

The bottom left part was mainly left unfinished. Hence, it cannot be compared with the bottom right part.

The top left panel depicts the lives of foresters. The important scene of Shiva giving a boon to Bhagiratha is also depicted. Besides these two scenes, a lot of animals and a few celestial couples are sculpted.

The top right panel does not particularly depict any scene. The images of celestial couples and animals are found in large numbers here.

The bottom left panel, although an unfinished one, depicts two scenes. A temple with four ascetics and four bathers on the banks of the river are depicted.

The bottom right panel depicts the hilarious scene of a cat imitating the ascetic and the herd of elephants moving in the forest.

The two sides of the panels do not have similar or matching figures. There are variances in the style, number and other aspects of the images.

In the top layer, the central cleft has Surya and Chandra on either side. But, both the Devas are not in a parallel line. Chandra is located in a higher place compared to Surya. Chandra is slightingly slanting, whereas Surya is in a proper vertical position. Chandra has his left arm raised up in amazement, whereas Surya has his right arm raised up.

Just above the Naga Raja in the central cleft, the left side has images of birds, whereas the right side has a celestial. 

Naga Raja is flanked by two celestial couples on either side. Both the couples are almost identical in style and posture.

On the true left side of the tail of Naga Raja, a monkey couple is found. The true right side has a single monkey.

Naga Queen is flanked by two Naga couples. One Naga has his hands in anjali mudra whereas the other person has his arm raised up in amazement. A five hooded serpent is found on the crown of one Naga, whereas the other Naga has three hooded serpent on his headdress. The Naga females too pose differently.

There are two Kinnara couples on the left panel. The right side panel has four Kinnara couples. Although all male Kinnaras hold Veenas in their arms, the style of holding the musical instrument varies in each sculpture. Similarly, a Kinnara female in the right-side panel does not hold cymbals, whereas all other females have cymbals in their arms. Except for one Kinnara couple on the right panel who are seen flying over, all other couples are depicted in the standing posture. 

There are five Gandharva or Vidhyadhara couples on left panel. The right panel has more number of such celestial couples. Totally, there are twelve couples. Out of five couples in the left panel, two males hold the bow in their arms. Hence, I feel these two couples could possibly represent Gandharvas and definitely not the Vidhyadharas. 

All the Gandharva or Vidhyadhara couples except for two couples on the right panel are facing towards the central cleft. One couple on the right panel faces towards us. Another couple has their faces turned slightly towards the backside. 

One male Gandharva/Vidhyadhara has his arms rested on his waist. Another male does not have his hand raised. As mentioned already two males on the left panel hold bows in their arms. Except for them, all other males have their arms raised up in amazement. The only difference is that the sculptures on the left panel have their left arms raised up, whereas the sculptures on the right panel have their right arms raised up.

Two dwarf couples are found on the left panel and three couples are found on the right panel. At least in two pairs, we could not clearly distinguish the females. We could only assume that they are couples and not two male dwarfs. Some scholars identify these dwarfs as Kimpurushas, a type of celestials. It is technically not correct. I consider all these dwarfs as humans.

I have identified few animals as tigers. I admit that they are arguably tigers, and it may represent some other wild cat species too.

Some scholars identify the lions as Vyalas (a mythological animal having the face of a lion and horns on the foreheads). I opine that it is not a correct representation and hence I call them lions. I have identified a few animals as lionesses, which I believe no one else has ever mentioned. Hence, there is a high possibility that the readers might not agree with my views.

The free-standing statues of two monkeys that are found near the panel are not part of the original monument. Hence, they are ignored in this article.

Many of the books, articles and sites, written by various authors, that include even well-known scholars, call this monument an Open-air Bas-relief panel. I wonder why all of them use a technically incorrect term to name it. Many of the sculptures in this panel are technically high-relief images. Even there are a few sculptures that are disengaged from the platform thus approximating the free-standing icons. Only a very few images are bas-relief images. Hence, it makes sense for us to call this monument an Open-air Relief Panel, rather than calling it an Open-air Bas-relief Panel. (I do not want to get into the technical details of what are relief and bas-relief images in this article.) 

Before concluding the article, let me share my opinion about the builders of this extraordinary monument. Who built this? Various scholars have different views. According to many, this was probably built by Narasimhavarma Pallava I in the 7th century CE. A few of them opine that Rajasimha Pallava got this panel sculpted in the 8th century CE. I too believed that it must be done during Rajsimha's period.

Happy travelling.