Dharmaraja Ratha - Mamallapuram

Introduction

If I miss the Five Ratha Complex and still claim to have visited Mamallapuram, people might literally laugh at me. And, by any chance, if I miss out on Dharmaraja Ratha and claim to have seen the Five Ratha Complex, people may consider me insane. Yes, it is the pinnacle of early temple architecture of Dravidian style.

It is the largest and grandest among all the monolithic structures of the Five Ratha complex and the entire Mahabalipuram town. This unfinished poetry in stone is the first monolithic temple to have three tiers and three sanctums, one over the other. It is an incredible achievement of Pallava sculptors. It stands tall as a testimony for their incomparable workmanship.

My previous four posts give a detailed introduction to Five Rathas and exclusive coverage of Draupadi, Arjuna, and Bhima Rathas. As it is a series of articles, please access these links and go through the content if you have not read them.

Five Rathas in Mamallapuram

Draupadi Ratha

Arjuna Ratha

Bhima Ratha

This article focuses on Dharmaraja Ratha. I will continue to cover the remaining one Ratha in my subsequent post.

I have written this article to easily make even laymen understand complex technical terms. Hence, I have used simple language. Meantime, I have ensured not to leave any stone unturned to cover all aspects of this extraordinary monument. Also, I have introduced the "Glossary" section for the first time in my blog. As many technical terms repeatedly appear in this article, I think there is a need to have this section.

(Note: I wrote about most of the monuments in Mamallapuram about ten years ago in my blog. This series of articles is my attempt to provide much detailed coverage on all aspects of Pandava Rathas.)

Glossary

Abhanga - One of the four types of body postures. It has a single bend.

Abhaya mudra - Hand gesture of fearlessness/protection

Adhisthana - Main base

Akshamala - Rosary beads

Alindra - The gap between two or more walls

Anarpita hara - Two or more walls having cavity in-between

Asana - Stance; Also, refers one of three types of Asanas - "Seated posture"

Ashtasra - Octagonal

Archana - Praying God by offering flower

Atibhanga - One of the types of body postures. It has more than three bends.

Bahuvalaya - Bangle

Bandha - Tie

Bhanga - The bend in the body of an icon; position or posture; inflexions of body

Chakra - Discus

Chamara - Fly-whisk

Channaveera - A cross belt worn by warriors

Chatura - Square

Chatura mudra - A hand gesture, where the thumb is held at the base of index, middle and ring fingers to form a square

Chin mudra - A hand gesture, where the thumb and index fingers touch at the tips while the remaining fingers are extended

Damaru - Two-headed drum

Danda - Staff

Dravida - One of three main temple architecture styles

Dwarapala - Door-keeper

Garbha griha - Sanctum

Griva - Architectural component below the dome

Guru - Teacher or mentor

Hara - Wall covering ambulatory outside

Harantara - Covered pathway or cloister

Hasta - Hand gesture; also known as "mudra"

Jata bhara - Mass of matted hair

Jata makuta - Matted hair that is ornamentally coiled to form a tall crown

Kapala - Skull

Kapota - Cornice

Karanda makuta - The basket or bowl shaped crown. Compared to Kirita makuta, it is small in size and shorter in height.

Karnakuta - Corner shrine

Kataka mudra - In this hand gesture, the middle and ring fingers are bent to form an arch, with the thumb slightly bent. The other fingers are erect. It might denote holding of some materials.

Katarimukha mudra - In this hand gesture, the little and ring fingers are bent and pressed against the thumb, while the index and middle fingers are stretched to form a scissor

Katyavalambita hasta - A posture where hand remains bent a little at the elbow and placed on the waist

Koshta - Niche

Kirita makuta - The conical or cylindrical crown with lot of ornamentation

Kuncita mudra - It is an elegant dance posture with heels thrown up and toes bent down

Kudu - Kudu is a Tamil term which means a horseshoe-shaped arch serving as a decorative motif. It is also called Nasika

Kundala - Ear-ring

Kuta - Square-shaped shrine

Lamba hasta - In this hand gesture, the hands are seen hanging down

Langula bhitti - Plough-shaped corner walls

Makara - A mythical creature

Makara kundala - Ear-ring shaped like Makara

Makuta - Crown

Mandapa - A pavillion

Misra - Composite

Mudra - Hand gesture; also known as "hasta"

Mukha mandapa - A pavillion in front of the sanctum

Mushti - Fist

Mushti hasta - Forming a fist by joining all the fingers tightly together

Nivitam - Yagnopavitam that is worn around the neck and over the chest

Padaraksha - Footwear

Pancha - Five

Panjara - Offset window or balcony

Pasa - Noose

Patra kundala - Cylindrical ear-ring resembling Palmyra leaf

Prachinavitam - Yagnopavitam that is worn over the right shoulder and under the left arm

Prati - Repeat

Pratibandha - The design/pattern that gets repeated

Pratimalakshana - The body postures of the sculptures

Prayoga chakra - Discus ready to be hurled, with its sharp edge pointed outwards

Ratha - Monolith temple

Sala - Oblong-shaped shrine

Samabhanga - One of the four types of body postures. Here, the body is in equipoise posture, with the right and the left of the icon are disposed symmetrically.

Sayana - Reclining posture

Shanka - Conch

Shikhara - Cupola

Shilpashastra - The science of architecture

Simha-vyala - Vyala or Yali is a mythical creature; Simha-vyala is a vyala with lion face

Sthanaka - Standing posture

Suchi mudra - It is a hand gesture, where the hand is in fist, with the index finger extended and held upright and straight

Tala - Unit of floor

Tri - Three

Tribhanga - One of the four types of body postures. It has bends in three parts of the body.

Udarabandha - A broad belt worn around the waist

Upapitha - Sub-base

Upavitam - Yagnopavitam that is worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm

Varada mudra - The hand gesture of granting boons, with an open palm and the hand pointing downwards

Vastra - Cloth

Vimana - The super-structure over the sanctum or the entire structure of the sanctum from top to base

Vyala - Vyala or Yali is a mythical creature

Yagnopavitam - Sacred thread worn over the body

Yali - Vyala is called Yali in Tamil

Layout

Dharmaraja Ratha, located on the southernmost corner, is the fourth monolithic structure from the north in the Pancha Ratha Complex.

Like other Rathas on the premises, it is named after a Pandava brother, Dharmaraja. However, there is no connection with any of the Pandavas. It is a Shiva temple. As per two inscriptions in this temple, it was called Atyantakama Pallavesvara Griham initially.

The tallest west-facing monolithic structure is carved on the same whale-backed hillock as Draupadi, Arjuna, and Bhima Rathas.

The strikingly charming temple has three floors, and hence it is called Tri-tala Vimana. All stories follow the square plan. The entire structure is topped with an ashtasra (octagonal) griva and shikhara (cupola). These features make it a Dravida vimana of the misra (composite) variety.

(For the benefit of beginners: Dravida is one of three main temple architecture styles).

As the temple is designed to have central cell enclosed with passageway called alindra, the design is called anarpita hara.

(For the benefit of beginners: Hara is a technical term in temple architecture which means the wall bordering an ambulatory outside).

Architecture

As stated already, the temple has three floors. All the floors are square in plan, and all of them are designed with a central cell or sanctum. The ground floor is the tallest among all floors. The upper floor is almost finished, the middle floor is less finished, and the ground floor is hardly finished. It is evident that the sculpting was started from the top.

This 41 feet high structure is the only monolithic temple designed to have a sanctum on each level. And, among all five Rathas in this complex, inscriptions are found only here.

Sculptures

There are life-sized sculptures found on all three floors. The ground floor has 8 sculptures, the Middle floor has 21 sculptures, and the Upper floor has 19 sculptures. Before providing a detailed account of all these sculptures, let me brief some fundamental elements of iconography and a few technical terms. It will help the readers to understand and appreciate the icons better.

Asana

There are three main types of Asanas (stances) of icons, Sthanaka (standing), Asana (seated), and Sayana (reclining). All 48 Koshta icons in Dharmaraja Ratha are found in the standing (sthanaka) posture.

Bhanga

Depending on how the body is bent or inflections, the posture can be classified into five types, namely Samabhanga, Abhanga, Dvibhanga, Tribhanga and Atibhanga,.

If the figure is in equipoise, the posture is called Samabhanga. Here, the icon's right and left sides are disposed of symmetrically.

If there is one bend in the posture, it is called Abhanga. Here, the bodyweight is supported by one leg. Knees are stretched, and the hip is pushed out on the side, which is not supporting the weight.

If there are two bends in the posture, it is called Dvibhanga. It is a noticeable diagonal bend in the torso with knees bent.

If there are bends at three body parts, it is called Tribhanga. Here, one side of the hip is raised, whereas the torso is curved to the opposite side. There are sharp curves in the hips and shoulders. The head is titled at an angle that results in an aesthetic S position. It is considered a graceful pose par excellence.

The sculpture with more than three flexions, indicating a lively or violent movement, is called Ati Bhanga.

The sculptures of this three-storied monument are either in Samabhanga or Tribhanga postures.

Mudra

The number of arms for each icon would vary. The figures of humans would have two arms, and that of celestials generally have four arms or even more than that. The sculptures of this monument mostly have four arms, and a few of them are found with two arms.

The science of architecture is called Shilpashastra. As per the Shilpashastra texts, Pratimalakshana, meaning "the body postures of the icons," are classified in three divisions: hastas, asanas, and bhangas. Asanas and bhangas are already briefed. Hasta, also known as mudra, refers to gestured made with hands. Mudra usually indicates some action which the deity or human depicted as the sculpture is shown to be engaged in.

Some of the mudras commonly found in the sculptures in this monument are described below.

Abhaya mudra - It is the gesture of fearlessness and protection. Here, the hand is held up with an open palm.

Chatura mudra - Here, the thumb is held at the base of the index, middle, and ring fingers to form a square

Chin mudra - In this gesture, the thumb and index fingers touch the tips while the remaining fingers are extended.

Kataka mudra - In this posture, the middle and ring fingers are bent to form an arch, with the thumb slightly bent. The other fingers are erect. It might denote holding of some materials.

Katarimukha mudra - In this gesture, the little and ring fingers are bent and pressed against the thumb, while the index and middle fingers are stretched to form a scissor

Katyavalambita hasta - A posture where the hand remains bent a little at the elbow and placed on the waist

Lamba hasta - In this hasta, the hands are seen hanging down

Mushti hasta - When all the fingers are joined tightly together to form a fist, its called Mushti hasta

Suchi mudra - If the hand is in the fist, with the index finger extended and held upright and straight, it is called suchi hasta.

Varada mudra - It is the gesture of granting boons. Here, with an open palm, the hand is pointing downwards.

Most of the sculptures of the monument have their right hands in abhaya mudra and their left hands resting on their waists, called Katyavalambita hasta.

Besides the above-mentioned hand gestures to convey some messages, there are other types of mudras too, such as Vastu Rupa mudra and Ayudha grahana. In Vastu rupa mudra, the deity's hands appear to hold or play something. In Ayudha mudras, the Gods or humans have various weapons and other materials in their arms. They will be covered in detail when the features of the individual sculptures are explained.

The postures of the body, hand gestures, and weapons carried alone would not make the understanding of iconography complete. The ornaments worn by the figures would also provide an interesting study.

Ornaments

Yagnopavitam is the sacred thread worn over the body. There are three positions in it. If it is worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm, it is called Upavitam. If it is worn in the reverse order, it is called Prachinavitam. If it is worn around the neck and over the chest, it is called Nivitam. Most of the sculptures in this shrine wear yagnopavitam.

The headdress or headgear is a distinctive feature of iconography. They are called makutas, which literally means "crowns". Makutas can be classified into three broader categories. Kirita makuta is a conical or cylindrical crown with a lot of ornamentation. Karanda makuta is a basket or bowl-shaped crown. Compared to Kirita makuta, it is small in size and shorter in height. If the matted hair is ornamentally coiled to form a tall crown, it is called Jata makuta.

The icons of Dharamaraja Ratha have any of the crowns mentioned above. In some sculptures, minor variations can be noticed.

The ornaments that adorn the icons are also as per the rules of Shilpashastra. There are specific names given to those ornaments. The ornament around the neck or below is called Kanthi or Kanthika. The ornament worn around the waist like a belt is called Kati bandha. Additionally, a broad flat band called Udarabandha can also be seen around the waist. The bangles are called Kankanas.

The ear ornaments are called Kundalas. Among five types of kundalas, the icons of this shrine are mostly adorned with Makara kundalas and Patra kundalas. Makara kunalas is shaped like the mythical Makara creature. Patra kundala is a cylindrical ear-ring resembling a palmyra leaf.

Ground Floor - Architecture

The ground floor is designed to have a central cell (shrine/sanctum) surrounded by outer walls on all sides. The wall gets projected at eight corners, thus resulting in corner walls called langula bhitti. These sidewalls have koshtas (niches) and life-size sculptures.

The open space between each corner wall has a frontage of two pillars and two pilasters with Simha-Vyala bases. The pillars have octagonal shafts above, whereas the pilasters have tetragonal shafts. (The pillars and pilasters remain incomplete on two sides).

The main entrance is evidently planned at the west side. However, it remains incomplete without the entrance opening. A small rectangular-shaped mukha mandapa is additionally found on the front side.

Miniature Sala and Kuta vimanas and Harantaras - Ground Floor

All sides are provided with entrances through rock-cut stairs. A circumambulatory space was probably planned around the central cell with its openings on four sides.

It has two levels of platforms (or bases), namely upapitha and adhisthana. The adhisthana is of pratibhanda type. ("Prati" means "repeat" and "bhanda" means "tie"). On this platform, the relief images of Yali, elephant and lion are repeated throughout.

Relief images of elephants and lions

A beam supporting a kapota (cornice) is found above the corbels of the pillars. The friezes of Ganas holding the garlands are located below the beam. The cornice has five pairs of kudus with inset human faces. (Kudu is a Tamil term that means a horseshoe-shaped arch serving as a decorative motif. It is also called Nasika.) On top of the cornice, there are various figures such as humans, lions and monkeys in the salutation pose. Their backs are ripped open to form water outlets.

Kudu

Above the cornice, the roof is decorated with three oblong-shaped miniature shrines called Sala and two square-shaped mini shrines at the corners named Kuta. These mini shrines are connected with a covered pathway (harantaras/cloisters). The decoration scheme remains the same in all directions except the west. Due to the presence of the mukha mandapa, this side has two Panjara mini structures in-between additionally.

The karnakutas (corner cells) in the corners remain common for two consecutive sides, and there are no exclusive karnakutas for each side.

Ground Floor - Sculptures

There are eight Koshtas (niches) in eight corners on the ground floor. Each slot houses a big and beautiful sculpture. The details about the label inscriptions found above a few icons are also provided here. Along with the architectural excellence of the entire structure, these high-standard sculptures offer us a visual treat.

The order followed in the below list is west, north, east, and south directions, and on each face, it is from the viewer's left to right.

Sculpture 1 - Bhairava

The sculpture in the northern end on the west face depicts Shiva in the standing posture, with a huge jatabhara (mass of matted hair) as his headdress. He wears patra kundalas in both his ears.

He has four arms. His upper left arm holds deer, and the other arm has akshamala (rosary). His lower right hand is in abhaya mudra, and the left one rests over his waist (called katyavalambita hasta). A snake is seen coiling around his thigh and raising its hoods on his left. Probably, the short lower garment around his waist is held by this snake.

Standing in samabhanga, he wears a broad vastra-yagnopavita, in nivita fashion. His wrists are adorned with kankanas. He is identified as Bhairava by certain scholars like Shri Nagaswamy. Although there is no consensus on his identification among the scholars, I too believe that he must be Bhairava.

Bhairava

Sculpture 2 - Chandrasekhara

The sculpture in the southern end on the west side depicts Shiva in an unusual posture, with both his upper arms hanging down. Standing in samabhanga pose, his upper right arm holds a serpent's tail, hanging down with its hood raised up. He has kamandalu in his upper left arm. His lower right arm is in kataka mudra, to hold probably a lotus or rosary. His lower left arm rests on his thigh. Due to erosion, it appears as if there are only three arms in this sculpture. The fourth arm on the left side only needs to be inferred.

He wears a garment with folds near the ankle, which is unusual for his iconography. It is secured at the waist by a katibandha. He wears yagnopavita in upavita fashion, kanthika round the neck, small earrings, and jatamakuta on the head. He is identified as Kevala Chandrasekhara. However, there is no consensus among authors in this identification.

Chandrasekhara

Sculpture 3 - Harihara

The niche in the eastern end on the north face has the beautiful sculpture of Harihara or Shankara Narayana, a combination of Hari or Narayana (Vishnu) and Hara or Shankara (Shiva). The right part of the body depicts Shiva, and the left part represents Vishnu.

Parasu (axe) and prayoga chakra (discus) are held at the upper right and upper left arms, respectively. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra, and his lower left arm is resting on the waist (called katyavalambita). Chakra is sculpted slightly outside the niche.

A snake coils out from the waist of Shiva's end. His lower garment reaches down to his ankles and is tied at the waist with a katibandha. Another long cloth is wound around the waist, with the shorter end tucked in on the left and hanging down up to the ankles. The longer end of the fabric is brought in front of the waist and prominently seen between two legs. Additionally, a broad flat band called Udarabandha is seen around the waist.

Yagnopavita is worn in nivita fashion. It has two bell-shaped clasps.

The headdress is a combination of jata makuta and kirita makuta. Both the ears have makara kundalas. A kanthika is found around the neck.

The label inscription above this image reads "Sri Narasimha".

Harihara

Sculpture 4 - Brahma

The niche in the western end on the north face has the image of four-headed Brahma. Three faces are carved, and the true right side face is unfinished. He holds lotus buds in his upper arms. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra, and his lower left arm rests in his waist.

He has karanda makuta as his headdress and wears long ear rings (makara kundalas). Bahuvalayas (bangles) can be seen on his arms. He wears yagnopavita in nivita fashion. His cloth is secured by a katibandha. He also wears udarabandha on his abdomen and kanthika on his neck.

His garment is similar to that of Harihara, as seen above. Hence, the description is not repeated.

Brahma

Sculpture 5 - Subramanya

The sculpture in the southern end on the east face depicts Subramanya (also known as Skanda, Kartikeya, or Murugan) with four arms and standing in the samabhanga posture.

He wears patra kundalas in both his ears and has karanda makuta as his headdress. He has a tight garment secured by a katibandha and another layer of cloth wound around his waist. He has a udarabandha in his abdomen and wears yagnopavita in nivita fashion. A kanthika is found around his neck.

He holds an aksha mala (rosary) in his upper right arm and padma (lotus) in his upper left arm. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra and his lower left arm rests on his waist. As he holds rosary and lotus, he can be identified as Brahma Shasta form of Subramanya. However, not all scholars agree with this opinion.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Prthvisara" and "Sri Bhara".

Subramanya

Sculpture 6 - Ardhanareeswara

The niche in the northern end on the east face has one of the best specimens of the Pallava art, an impressive sculpture of Ardhanareeswara. The left part of the body depicts Uma, and the right part depicts Shiva. The perfect symmetry between the masculine and feminine features has been carried out very well.

The right leg that belongs to Shiva is in samabhanga, whereas the left leg, which belongs to Uma, is in dvibhanga pose. The headdress is a combination of jata makuta and karanda makuta. The right side shoulder is broad, and the left shoulder has feminine features.

Parasu (axe) and padma (lotus) are held at the upper right and upper left arms.

His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra, and her lower left arm is hanging down (called lamba hasta).

Patra kundala is found in the left ear, and makara kundara is in the right ear. The ornamentation in arms and ankles is appropriate for Uma. She is seen wearing an anklet on her foot.

There is a katibandha and another coil of cloth around the waist. A snake with its raised hood is hanging below the right-side hip of Ardhanareeswara.

The label inscription above this image reads "Bhuvanabhajana".

Ardhanareeswara

Sculpture 7 - Pallava

The southwestern sculpture on the south face depicts a royal figure, undoubtedly a Pallava King. Many scholars have opined it to be the image of Narasimhavarma Pallava I. However, I feel there is no evidence to determine the same.

The majestic royal figure, shown with two hands, wears a tapering crown (karna makuta), a jeweled necklace, golden makara kundalas, and yagnopavita made of a garland of strands of pearls in upavita fashion. Additionally, he has three gold bracelets on each wrist. He has udarabandha, a jeweled katibandha, and an additional layer of cloth around his waist.

His right arm is hanging down and holding something. His left arm is resting on his hip.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Srimega" and "Trilokyavardhana vidhi".

Pallava

Sculpture 8 - Shiva

The sculpture in the eastern end on the south face depicts Shiva with four arms and standing in samabhanga posture. He wears makara kundala in both his ears and has jata makuta as his headdress.

He holds a parasu (axe) in his upper right arm. He has probably pasa (noose) or aksha mala in his upper left arm. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra, and his lower left arm rests on his waist.

Kanthika around his neck, udarabandha in his abdomen, and yagnopavita in nivita fashion are found. A serpent is seen with its raised hoods near his right thigh.

No one could ever identify the exact form of Shiva based on the iconographic features. Hence, he is called in his common name, Shiva.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Atyantakama" and "Anekopaya".

Shiva

Middle Floor - Architecture

The stairs were not provided to reach the first floor from the ground. There are four pillars on the north and south sides, thus providing four projections and three intervening recesses that result in seven niches. There are only four niches in east and west faces. Therefore, there are 22 niches. One slot on the west front remains unfinished. Probably a Dwarapala was planned to be sculpted here. Except for this niche, all other 21 niches have life-sized sculptures.

The unfinished central cell or sanctum takes up the place of the middle three niches in the west. There is a small projecting mukha mandapa in front, supported by two Simha-Vyala base pillars. A narrow circumambulatory path is provided around the cell.

The walls of this floor are terminated with kapota (cornice) and a vyala mala above. Except for the west, in all remaining three directions, the hara decoration has two miniature sala shrines in the middle and two miniature karnakuta shrines in the corner. In the west, the projecting mukha mandapa has three sala shrines between two karnakutas. All the mini shrines are connected with covered cloisters. The karnakutas in the corners remain common for two consecutive sides and there are no exclusive karnakutas for each side.

The cornice has four pairs of kudus with inset human faces. In west face alone, there are five kudus instead.

Middle Floor - Sculptures

As stated already, there are 21 Koshta sculptures across four directions on the middle floor. The details about the label inscriptions found above a few icons are also provided here.

Sculpture 9 - Kankalamurti

The sculpture in the northernmost niche on the west face depicts Shiva as Kankala murti. Adorned by a jata makuta with a skull and crescent on top, he wears patra kundala in his right ear and a small ring in his other ear. He has kanthika on his neck, yagnopavita in upavita fashion over his body, katibandha securing his short lower garment, and an additional cloth around the waist.

He has four arms. He holds probably a coiled pasa (noose) in his upper right arm and has chamara (fly-whisk) in his upper left arm. His right leg is slightly kept forward. A long danda (staff) is held in his lower right arm, touching his shoulder. The corpse of Vishvaksena hangs on that. Being the divine beggar, he carries a skull (called kapala) in his lower left arm as his begging bowl.

Kankalamurti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Shri Nagaswamy identifies him as Bhikshatana and not as Kankala. His point of view is not convincing to me.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Satyaparakrama" and "Paravara".

Kankalamurti

Sculpture 10 - Dwarapala

The sculpture adjacent to that of Kankalamurti on the west face is a Dwarapala (doorkeeper). He has two arms and holds a long sword in his left arm. He wears kirita makuta (tall conical crown) on his head and heavy kundalas (earrings) on his ears. Two curved horns project behind his makuta. They are actually not horns, but they represent Trishul, the divine weapon of Shiva. Hence, he can be identified as Suladeva or Ashtradeva. As per Shri Nagaswamy, he is Nandi.

Dwarapala (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Similar to this niche on the north side of the planned shrine, the niche on the other side must ideally have the sculpture of other Dwarapala. But the carving was not even commenced.

Dwarapala

Sculpture 11 - Female Devotee

The southernmost sculpture on the west face depicts a graceful female devotee carrying a holy water pot in her left hand. This lady is in tribhanga pose and moves towards the central cell. She wears karanda makuda and patra kundalas. She has anklets on her both legs and ornament in her waist. She is shown without a breast-band. All her physical features are artistically sculpted. This is the only woman sculpture in this monolithic temple.

Female Devotee

Female Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 12 - Vrshabhantika

The easternmost sculpture on the north face depicts Shiva as Vrshabhantika. He is learning on his mount Nandi, by resting his lower right arm elegantly on its hump.

He holds damaru (two-headed drum) and pasa in his upper arms. His lower left arm rests on hip. The thumb and middle finger of this arm are folded. A katibandha secures his short lower garment. Besides, a serpent with its raised hood is shown hanging by his right side. He has a small stud in his right ear and a big patra kundala in his right ear. Kanthika and yagnopavita in upavita fashion are present.

His matted hair is decorated like a modern-day turban with a jewel on top. Crescent moon is tucked above his headdress.

Shiva's relaxing tribhanga posture and the lovely bull enjoying its master's presence make this exquisite composition a masterpiece of Pallavas.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Sthira bhakti", "Madanabhirama" and "Vidhi".

Vrshabhantika

Vrshabhantika (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 13 - Kalarimurti

The second easternmost sculpture on the north face depicts Shiva as Kalarimurti. It is yet again a masterpiece done by Pallava sculptors. Look at the pride in the face of Shiva and pity in the face of Kala. Holding deer and axe in his upper arms, Shiva carries trishula (trident) in his lower right arm. He is pointing towards the lying-down Kala with his lower left arm. It is called suchi mudra. Shiva is dancing in chatura (square) pose, a rare and exquisite depiction.

While he has patra kundala in his left ear, there is no earring in the right ear. Adorned with kankanas and bahuvalayas in his arms, he has yagnopavita in upavita mode.

Jatamakuta with a big skull on the front side as Shiva's headdress and two tusk-like protruding teeth of Kala are noticeably attractive.

Scholars like Sri Sivaramamurti claim that this sculpture is Natesa and not Kalari.

Kalarimurti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 14 - Garudantikamurti (Vishnu with Garuda)

The north face's third niche from the eastern end has Vishnu with his mount, Garuda. Vishnu is in royal attire with a long crown (kirita makuta) on his head. He has four arms, holding prayoga chakra (discus ready to be hurled) and shanka (conch) in his upper arms. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra. His lower left arm is over the shoulders of Garuda.

Vishnu is seen wearing yagnopavita in nivita mode. His arms are adorned with kankanas and bahuvalayas. His lower garment reaches his ankles and is held tight with a katibandha. Udarabandha and an additional folded cloth are also found. He has makara kundalas on his ears.

Garuda, depicted with a sharp beak-like nose, is bent in submission with his fingers in front of his mouth. His left arm lies on his bent knee. It appears he is preparing himself to mount Vishnu.

Garuda wears karanda makuta over a jatabhara falling on either side of his face. His ears are adorned large patra kundalas. Yagnopavita, kati bandha, kankanas and bahuvalayas are too found.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Sri Narasimha", "Bhuvanabajana", "Srimegha" and "Apratihatasasana".

Garudantikamurti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 15 - Gangadharamurti

The middle niche on the north face has the sculpture of Gangadharamurti. Here, Shiva is in tribhanga posture and firmly places his right leg over a pedestal. He holds akshamala in his upper right arm. His lower right arm is in mushti hasta posture, suggesting stabilization. (When all fingers are joined tightly together to form a fist, it is called mushti hasta). The palms of his lower left arm suggest blessing.

His headdress is matted hair. Ganga, as an elegant female, is found kneeling down with folded hands. The descending river is held by Shiva in his upper left arm.

Shiva wears kanthika around his neck and yagnopavita in upavita mode. His lower garment reaching up to his ankles are held tight with a katibandha.

Gangadhara (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 16 - Chandesa Anugrahamurti

The third niche from the western end on the north face has exceptionally excellent sculptures of Shiva and Chandesa. Chandesa or Chandikeshwara is a devotee of Shiva. Here, Shiva expresses kindness and tenderly puts his left arm over the shoulder of his devotee. On the other hand, Chandesa's body language depicts extreme devotion and submission, with his left arm folded and right arm touching his mouth. As Shiva is found blessing Chandesa, he is known as Chandesa Anugrahamurti.

Shiva's lower right arm rests stylishly on his hip. His legs are crossed with each other. He holds a chamara and probably a serpent's tail in his upper right and left arms, respectively.

Adorned with jata makuta and a crescent on top, Shiva wears patra kundala on his left ear and none on the other ear. Kanthika is found around his neck. His short lower garment is held with a katibandha and an additional cloth. He wears yagnopavita in nivita mode.

Chandesa has a heavy jata bhara, parted in the middle and falling over either side of his face. He wears a garland around his neck and patra kundalas on both his ears. Also, a small conical top knot is found.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Kamala lalita", "Ameyamaya" and "Sakala kalyana".

Chandesa Anugraha (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 17 - Shiva as a Guru

Shiva is the universal Guru. The north face's second niche from the western end depicts him as a dance teacher. Look at his facial expression! His elation as a proud teacher is expressed so perfectly. The headdress of Shiva is interesting. His tresses are coiled around his head, thus making a flat turban. He holds axe and trident in his upper arms. His lower right arm has its palm facing the ground, as chatura hasta mudra. His lower left arm is in chin mudra.

Next to him, his student is seen dedicatedly practicing dance and carefully observing for his Guru's instruction. His left leg is bent at knee level and is raised above. This posture resembles kunchita mudra. Some scholars have identified him as Bharata or Tandu.

Tandu Anugraha (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 18 - Vinadhara

In the west most niche on the north face, Shiva is depicted as Vinadhara. He holds Veena elegantly with his two upper arms close to his chest. He is in tribhanga posture. His lowered head and graceful body posture depict him playing the musical instrument attentively. His lower right arm is in kataka mudra, while the lower left arm is hanging by his side in lamba hasta mudra. He holds probably a book in this arm.

Shiva has a jata makuta with a skull and crescent on his top. Patra kundala in the right ear and a small earring in the left ear are found. A kanthika around his neck, a katibandha and a udarabandha around his abdomen and yagnopavita in nivita mode are found. Interestingly he wears padarakshas (footwear).

As per a few scholars, this sculpture also suggest Ardhanari (half-woman) aspect, as the left half has feminine features. However, I disagree with that point of view.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Nayanamanohara", "Vama" and "Adimana".

Veenadhara (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 19 - Priest with a long basket

The southernmost niche on the east face has the sculpture of a priest holding a long basket with flowers. He is probably performing archana (offering flowers). He has an almost shaven head, top-knot hair, and yagnopavita in upavita mode. This image gives us a clear idea about the look of priests in those days.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Vama" and "Paravara".

Devotee

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 20 - Temple Attendant

The second niche from the south on the east face has the sculpture of a temple attendant holding a bell. The bearded person has jata-bhara as his headdress. He holds the bell by its top handle with his right arm. His devotion can be felt from his facial expression.

Temple Attendant

Temple Attendant (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 21 - Temple Cook

The second niche from the north on the east face has the sculpture of a temple cook carrying food in a big vessel on his right arm over his shoulder. He has a top-knot on his head and wears a lower garment reaching his ankles. A keen observation would reveal that he holds a large-sized key over his left shoulder.

Temple Cook (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 22 - Temple Singer

The northernmost niche on the east face has the sculpture of a temple singer holding a stringed musical instrument in his left hand. His facial expression and the posture of his right arm clearly indicate that he is singing.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Anupama" and "Nayankura".

Temple Singer

Temple Singer (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 23 - Shiva

The extreme west niche on the south face has the sculpture of Shiva standing in tribhanga pose. His upper right and left arms are in kataka and kartarimukha mudras, respectively, suggestive of appropriate weapons held. He holds parasu in his lower right arm. His left arm rests on his waist. He has jata makuta on top. Interestingly, he wears patra kundala on his right ear and none in his left ear.

No one is able to clearly identify the exact form of Shiva depicted in this sculpture. Hence, he is called with this generic name as "Shiva".

The label inscription above this image reads "Lalita".

Shiva

Shiva (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 24 - Kaliyamardana Krishna

The second niche from the west on the south face has a sculpture that would have challenged the Pallava sculptor to create such a dynamic icon within the restricted space. A youthful Krishna adorned with peacock feathers on his head, and patra kundalas on his ears attacks Kaliya. Also, a thick yagnopavita is found over his body. Kaliya is found in the composite form of human and serpent. The torso is in human form with a serpent's tail.

Further, his head is shaded by three hoods. By planting his left foot firmly and holding the serpent's tail tightly, Krishna tramples it with his right leg. The dramatic moment of Krishna winning over the snake battling to live has been captured artistically in this sculpture.

Kaliyamardana (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 25 - Shiva-alinga Nandi

The third niche from the west on the south face has the beautiful sculpture of Shiva leaning on Nandi. This sculpture is similar to the one where Vishnu is found along with his mount Garuda. Interestingly, Nandi is in complete human form.

With a gentle smile on his face, Shiva holds akshamala and the tail of a serpent in his upper arms. Standing in tribhanga posture, he shows kataka mudra with his lower right arm. While his right leg is planted straight, his left leg is bent and crossed behind. Having jata bhara flowing down on either side of his face, he wears patra kundala in his right ear. Besides yagnopavita in upavita mode, he wears a necklace of beads and katibandha.

Nandi is found wearing karanda makuta over his jatabhara. He has his right arm holding his mouth in submission and his left knee bent. The humble reverence of Nandi is beautifully captured.

Although a few scholars identify this icon as Bharata instead of Nandi, it is not convincing.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Nayanamanohara" and "Sarvatobhadra".

Shiva-alinga Nandi

Shiva-alinga Nandi (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 26 - Vishnu

Vishnu standing in samabhanga posture, with kirita makuta on top, and holding chakra and sankha in his upper arms, is found in the central niche on the south face. His lower right arm is in abhaya mudra, and his lower left arm rests in his waist. This image is similar to Vishnu's icons found in many other temples.

Shri Nagaswamy calls this image Harihara. It is not at all convincing.

Vishnu (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 27 - Veenadhara Dakshinamurti

The third niche from the east on the south face has the sculpture of Veenadhara Dakshinamurti. Undoubtedly, it is one of the best sculptures of Pallavas. It is so lively that we clearly see Shiva relaxingly standing with crossed legs, enjoying playing his Veena. He holds it with his two lower hands. The upper right arm has damaru. The other hand elegantly rests over the head of adjoining dwarf Gana. His headdress is heavy jata bhara. A patra kundala adorns his left ear. The Gana has pot bellied stomach and heavy Patra kundalas on his ears. It is noteworthy that there is no yagnopavita.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Srinidhi" and "Niruttara".

Veenadhara Dakshinamurti

Veenadhara Dakshinamurti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 28 - Andhakantaka Murti

The second niche from the east on the south face has an attractive icon of Shiva vanquishing the Asura called Andhaka. He is standing astride and has his right leg firmly on Asura. He is depicted as vigorous but composed, whereas Asura's face expresses defeat and fear. Shiva carries axe and tail of a serpent in his upper arms. His lower right arm is in suchi mudra, pointing finger upwards. He pierces the body of Asura with a trident held in his lower left arm.

It should be noted that Shri Nagaswamy has a difference of opinion. According to him, this deity is Kalarimurti, and the laid down person is Kala.

Andhakantaka Murti

Andhakantaka Murti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 29 - Shiva

The easternmost niche on the south face has the sculpture of Shiva standing in tribhanga mudra. His lower right arm is in kartari mudra. His other arm rests on his waist. He holds akshamala and chamara in his upper arms. His left arm rests on his waist. He has jata makuta on top. Interestingly, he wears patra kundala on his right ear and none in his left ear. In many aspects, this sculpture resembles the one in the west end.

The label inscriptions above this image read "Vidhi" and "Vibhranta".

Shiva

Shiva (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Other Inscriptions - Middle Floor

Besides 26 label inscriptions found above the niche sculptures mentioned in the previous section, there is one found on the flight of steps in the east face. It reads "Mahamalla".

Upper Floor - Architecture

There is a staircase to reach the second floor from the first floor. This floor follows the style and design that of the first floor. Each side except the west face has two pillars and two pilasters, resulting in five niches.

There is a central cell with four niches on the west face on either side. It is a shallow shrine chamber excavated into its face. The facade has two pilasters. A narrow mukha mandapa is found in front of the sanctum. Over the shrine entrance, the frieze has Ganas carrying garlands.

A narrow circumambulatory path is provided around the cell. This is the most complete floor among all three tiers.

With five niches on each face, there are 19 niches. All these niches have sculptures.

The walls of this floor are terminated with kapota (cornice) and a vyala mala above. On all sides, the hara decoration has one miniature sala shrine in the middle and two miniature karnakuta shrines in the corner. All the mini shrines are connected with covered cloisters. The karnakutas in the corners remain common for two consecutive sides, and there are no exclusive karnakutas for each side.

The cornice has three pairs of kudus with inset human faces.

Upper Floor - Central Cell

Not only the niche sculptures but even the icons inside the sanctum can be considered testimonials for Pallavas' workmanship. The exquisite relief panel enshrined in the shrine is one of the best among the earliest sculptures of South India.

Shiva is seated with his left leg folded and right leg hanging down. He has four arms and sports jata makuta as his headdress. What he holds in his upper arms is not clear. His lower right arm is in chin mudra, and his lower left arm rests on his folded leg. His chin mudra suggests that he is professing something to his consort Uma.

Somaskanda (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Uma, shown in the side profile, is seated next to Shiva. She is slightly bent towards Shiva. Her left arm is near her ears, indicating she is attentively listening to Shiva. She holds her infant Skanda in her left arm. Skanda, in the side profile, is found between his parents.

This form of Shiva with Uma and Skanda is termed Somaskanda. It should be noted that it is a commonly found panel in Pallava period shrines and in the later period. However, Uma is seated in a full-frontal mode in all those panels.

Vishnu and Brahma are seen on either side with their inner hands raised in adoration. Two dwarf Ganas, one male, and one female, with chamaras are seen flying on the top.

Upper Floor - Sculptures

There are 19 Koshta sculptures across four directions on the second floor.

Sculpture 30 - Devotee

The niche in the northernmost end on the west face has a devotee's sculpture. He holds a flower in his left arm and rests his right arm on his waist. Heavy patra kundalas are seen on his ears. Yagnopavita is worn in nivita fashion.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 31 - Dwarapala

The second sculpture from the north end on the west face depicts a lively Dwarapala. He is seen in a relaxed posture by resting both arms on his club. He stylishly stands by crossing his legs. He sports karanda makuta with loosely coiled cummerbund with a faint smile on his face. He wears heavy patra kundalas and yagnopavita in upavita fashion. Udarabandha and katibandha are also found around the abdomen.

On top of the niche, a pot-bellied dwarf Gana is seen supporting a thin corbel.

Dwarapala (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 32 - Dwarapala

The second sculpture from the south end on the west face depicts the other Dwarapala. He has his right arm in kataka mudra and rests his left arm on his waist. His club is seen in the background. The ornaments and dress are similar to the other Dwarapala, so the description is not repeated.

Like the other niche, a Gana supporting the corbel is also found on top.

Dwarapala (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 33 - Devotee

The niche in the southmost end on the west face has a devotee's sculpture. He holds a flower in his right arm and rests his left arm on his waist. Heavy patra kundalas are seen on his ears. Yagnopavita is worn in upavita fashion. Otherwise, this is almost identical to the sculpture of the devotee on the other end.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 34 - Devotee

A devotee with a flower in his left hand is found as the first sculpture from the east in the north face. He has his right arm resting on his waist.

Devotee

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 35 - Devotee

The second sculpture from the east in the north face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and keeping close to his chest. His left arm hangs down, and he appears to have a small object like a flower, which is unclear.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 36 - Chandra

The central niche in the north face has a beautiful sculpture of Chandra. He stands in sama bhanga posture. A circular halo is seen behind his head. He has two arms. His left arm rests on his hip (called Kati posture). He holds a lotus in his right arm.

He has makara kundalas in his ears. He wears cross bands called channaveera on his body, which indicates that he is a warrior. He sports kirita makuta on top and kanthika around his neck. He has udarabandha and katibandha around his abdomen.

Chandra (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 37 - Devotee

The second sculpture from the west in the north face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and keeping the other arm on his hip.

Devotee

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 38 - Devotee

The first sculpture from the west in the north face depicts a devotee with his right arm in suchi mudra and his left arm resting on his waist.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 39 - Devotee

The first sculpture from the south in the east face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his left arm and having his right arm on his waist.

Sculpture 40 - Devotee

The second niche from the south in the east face has the sculpture of a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and keeping the same closer to his chest.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 41 - Surya

The central niche in the east face has a beautiful sculpture of Surya. He stands in sama bhanga posture. A circular halo is seen behind his head. He has two arms. His left arm rests on his hip (called Kati posture). He holds a lotus in his right arm. He has makara kundalas in his ears. He wears cross bands called channaveera on his body, which indicates that he is a warrior.

Surya

Sculpture 42 - Devotee

The second niche from the north in the east face has the image of a devotee holding a flower in his left arm and keeping the same closer to his chest.

Devotee

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 43 - Devotee

The first sculpture from the north in the east face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and having his left arm on his waist.

Sculpture 44 - Devotee

The first sculpture from the west in the south face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and having his left arm on his waist.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 45 - Devotee

The second sculpture from the west in the south face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his left arm and having his right arm on his waist. His headdress is unique and resembles a turban.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 46 - Dakshinamurti

The middle figure in the south is a rare and unique form of Dakshinamurti. He is standing with his two upper arms in kataka mudra and his lower right arm in abhaya and the remaining one again in kataka mudras. With his left leg placed firmly on the ground, his right leg is gracefully bent at the knee. A thick jatabhara is seen as his headdress.

Dakshinamurti

Dakshinamurti (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 47 - Devotee

The second sculpture from the east in the south face depicts a devotee holding a flower in his right arm and having his left arm on his waist.

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Sculpture 48 - Devotee

The first sculpture from the east in the south face depicts a devotee with suchi mudra in his right arm and having his left arm on his waist.

Devotee

Devotee (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Inscriptions - Upper Floor

There are two label inscriptions on the second floor, one on the east and another on the west side. Both read "Atyantakama Pallavesvara Griham". When all other inscriptions found on the ground and first floors refer to the King who built this temple in various names, the inscriptions on this floor clearly call out the temple's name.

Thus, there are 8 inscriptions on the ground floor, 27 inscriptions on the middle floor, and two on the upper floor. All of them are in the Pallava Grantha script. Except for the inscriptions on the upper floor, all other labels are called "birudas", titles given to Pallava Kings.

Staircase (PC - Rangarathnam Gopu)

Do they refer to various Pallava Kings such as Mahendravarma Pallava, Narasimhavarma Pallava and Rajasimha Pallava? Else, as Shri Nagaswamy claims, all those birudas refer to just one monarch, Rajasimha Pallava? Why are the inscriptions not evenly distributed? Why are the inscriptions not found on the beam of every niche? There are many questions for which we do not have clear answers. As the scope of this article is not to dig so deeply into this subject, let me not discuss it further.

Shikhara

Rising over the terrace of the upper floor, the neck-like architectural element called Griva is found. It is octagonal on the plan. It has eight corner pilasters on its eight angles carrying on top a beam. Behind this, the frieze of boldly carved Ganas is found.

Shikhara

On top of the Griva, we find the crowning glory of Pallavas that became the model for most of the future temples of South India, the octagonal Shikhara. It is adorned with kudu arches on all sides. Floral designs can be seen on the corners. On top of the crown, there is a lotus base on which Stupi was installed initially. It is missing now.

Ganesha

A sculpture of Ganesha, which was excavated and discovered later, is installed in the opposite direction. It has no connection to the monument.

Conclusion

I am not in agreement with books written only to satisfy scholars. I sincerely believe there is no use in publishing ultra-expensive books that an ordinary fellow cannot purchase.

My intention is always to explain the complex subject in simple language so that the layman can easily digest the matter and appreciate the same. Also, such reliable sources must be available easily and free of cost. I spent around four months authoring this single article. Although I call it an article, it is as exhaustive as a thick book on this subject.

I would feel accomplished if this article motivates even a single soul to visit the exceptionally great monument and appreciate it thoroughly.

Happy travelling.